Sphinx elpenor Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. (Edn 10) 1: 491. Type locality: not stated [Sweden].
Synonym. Pergesa elpenor szechuana Chu & Wang, 1980, Acta zootaxon. sin. 5: 421. Type locality: China, Sichuan, Huili.
Note. The characters which separate D. e. lewisii from D. e. elpenor are not confined to that subspecies. Individuals of what are typical subsp. lewisii can be found within the range of subsp. elpenor; the reverse is also true. Subsp. lewisii was therefore synonymized with subsp. elpenor by Pittaway (1993).
Wingspan: 52--75mm. A very distinct species and difficult to confuse with any other in the region except D. rivularis (Boisduval, 1875). Variation is confined to the extent of or, as in the case of f. unicolor Tutt, absence of pink coloration on the forewing.
Hiding away amongst foliage by day, adults do not take flight, unlike many other hawkmoths, until well after dark, when flowers such as Lonicera, Silene, Buddleja and Valeriana are avidly visited. Towards midnight, pairing takes place, with pairs rarely remaining in copula for more than two hours. Following separation, females immediately begin to lay eggs, continuing to do so over a number of nights until approximately 100 have been deposited. It is strongly attracted to light, with large numbers often coming to mercury-vapour lamps between 22.00 and 24.00 hours in England.
In the Russian Far East, a lowland species of mixed and pure deciduous woodland characterized by Quercus mongolica (Izerskiy, 1999b).
China: iv-vi (Jiangsu); v (Shandong; Xinjiang); 25.vi (Zhejiang); vii (Heilongjiang; Jilin; Sichuan, 1080m); vii-ix (Liaoning); 21.vii (Hubei); 25.vii (Altai Mountains); viii (Jiangxi; Fujian; Yunnan); 3-31.viii (Zhejiang); ix (Sichuan; Shaanxi); 17-24.ix (Shanghai); 21-28.ix (Zhejiang). Mongolia: 19.vii (Songino). North Korea: vii (Wonsan). South Korea: 28.vii. Japan: 11.v-4.vi (Honshu); 27.vii-29.viii (Honshu); 20.vii-3.viii (Hokkaido). Russia: 25.v-6.vi (Primorskiy Kray); 5.vi-26.vii (Siberia); 17.vi-19.vii (Primorskiy Kray); 1-15.vii (Khabarovsk Kray); 18.vii-9.ix (Primorskiy Kray); 31.vii (Altai); 12.viii-20.ix (Primorskiy Kray).
Double-brooded in northeastern China, with adults flying between April and October (Yang, 1978). Full-grown larvae are usually met with in July and September (Chu et al., 1979). In neighbouring regions of Russia, D. e. elpenor flies in June and July.
Park et al. (1999) give early May until late September as the flight period in Korea.
OVUM: Pale green, almost spherical (1.2 x 1.5mm), shiny and smooth. Laid singly or in pairs underneath the leaves of its hostplant, hatching about ten days later.
LARVA: Full-fed 70--80mm. Dichromatic: brown or green.
Newly-hatched larva (4--5mm long) pale green, cylindrical, with a small, narrow horn. In the second instar the head is disproportionately small. With a further moult, the first and second abdominal segments enlarge and have large and extremely realistic eye-spots. It is during this instar that most change to the final dark form, although some remain green. In between feeding, both by day and at night, the young larva rests stretched out beneath a leaf, where it is extremely well camouflaged. Later, larger individuals feed fully exposed at the top of a plant by day or night, preferring flowers and seed-heads to leaves. When not feeding, it often retires to hide at the base of the plant where its dark coloration is of greater advantage. Some larvae, especially those on Galium, may feed openly only at night.
A striking feature of this species is its defensive behaviour. When alarmed, the head and the three thoracic segments are withdrawn into the first and second abdominal segments, which expand greatly, enlarging the startling eye-spots. Even quite large birds have been known to flee at this sight. The coloration of these 'eyes' remains bright until pupation. The larva can also swim if it drops from emergent aquatic hostplants into the water below.
PUPA: 35--47mm. Similar to those of Hippotion celerio and Theretra alecto, but easily distinguished by having a strongly reduced proboscis; brown coloration streaked with even darker brown; and a single row of spines on each mobile, abdominal segment. The function of these has yet to be ascertained, but Brock (1990) has demonstrated that if cocoons of this species are flooded or exposed to high humidity in the UK, up to 90 per cent of pupae rapidly work their way out of the cocoon by using these spines. This behaviour may be an adaptation to avoid drowning during flooding of the habitat. Even so, pupae are very active, often working their way out of their cocoon prior to emergence. Pupation takes place very close to the hostplant in a strongish mesh cocoon amongst debris on the ground. Overwinters as a pupa.
Larval hostplants. Recorded in China on Epilobium, Galium, Lonicera, Lythrum, Pinellia, Rubia and Vitis (Yang, 1978; Chu & Wang, 1980; Lin, 1990; Sheng & Xue, 1993). Elsewhere, most records are on Balsaminaceae, Lythraceae, Onagraceae, Rubiaceae and Vitaceae.
In Japan, recorded from Impatiens balsamina, I. textori, Lythrum anceps and Vitis.
Recorded in Korea on Oenothera stricta, Impatiens balsamina, I. textori, Epilobium angustifolium, Galium verum var. asiaticum, Colocasia antiquorum and Lythrum anceps (Park et al., 1999).
Ichneumonidae: Amblyjoppa cognatoria (Smith).
China: Xinjiang (Tian Shan; Yining; Altai Mountains; Yining/Gulja, 900-1200m); Heilongjiang (Harbin; Lalin; Zhaodong); Jilin; Liaoning (Dandong; Huanren); Hebei; Beijing; Shandong (Yantai); Shaanxi (Xunyang, 1380m); Shanxi; Jiangsu (Nanjing); Anhui; Shanghai; Zhejiang (Tianmu Shan); Hubei (Lichuan); Sichuan (Emei Shan; Chengdu; Huili; Kangding); Yunnan (Changning Co., Songzhishanding, 2800m); Guizhou; Hunan (Shangzhi); Jiangxi (Jiujiang); Fujian (Longqi Shan; Guangze, 1200m).
Mongolia: Songino.
North Korea: South Hamgyong Prov. (Wonsan); North Hamgyong Prov. (Ungiryung).
South Korea: Widespread in Seoul; Kyonggi Prov.; Kangwon Prov.; North Chungchong Prov.; South Chungchong Prov.; North Cholla Prov.; South Cholla Prov.; North Kyongsang Prov.; South Kyongsang Prov.; Cheju Prov.
Japan: Hokkaido (Kushiro; Tokachi); Honshu (Tokyo; Kumanotairo; Mikaboyama, 750m; Iruma; Owa; Kiyosato); Shikoku; Kyushu; ?Okinawa.
Russia: Altai (Yailyu); Siberia (Tomsk; Pozdnyakovo; Tyul'ka; Novodubovo; Novosibirsk; Chingisy; Alaevo; Kolpashevo; Kolomino; Porotnikovo; Korolevka; Kalinovka; Kharat); Khabarovsk Kray (Khabarovsk; Slavyanka); Primorskiy Kray (Askold Island; Jankowski Peninsula; Lesogor'e; Khasan; Primorskiy); Kurile Islands; Sakhalin Island.
Recorded by Pittaway (1993) as a non-migratory resident that occurs throughout Europe (with the exception of northern Scandinavia, northern Scotland and parts of the Iberian Peninsula), eastward through temperate Russia north of the Kyrgyz Steppe to the Pacific coast (including Sakhalin), Korea and Japan; then south through China as far as Sichuan and Guangdong (Danner et al., 1998). In the south, recorded from Turkey, then east through the Caucasus, northern Iran, southern Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, to southeastern Kazakhstan (Danner et al., 1998). It is rare in northeastern Afghanistan (Ebert, 1969).
Records of this species from Taiwan are erroneous.
This species has also recently been recorded from southern British Columbia, Canada, as an introduction.
Holarctic; Palaearctic (both eastern and western subregions). Pleistocene refuge: Polycentric -- Holomediterranean, Caspian, Iranian, Turkestan and Manchurian refugia.
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